The Difficulties of Ex Situ Conservation: A Nationwide Investigation of Avian Haemosporidia Among Captive Penguins in Japan
Avian malaria has been a continuous problem in both wild and captive populations of penguins throughout the world.In Japan, where there are over 3000 captive penguins, avian malaria (by Plasmodium spp.) and haemoproteosis (by Haemoproteus spp.) have been sporadically detected throughout the country.However, no comprehensive studies have been carrie